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A Century Of Progress: Reading Interventions For Students In Grades 4–12, 1914–2014
Open in a separate window Coding Procedures The Vaughn, Elbaum, Wanzek, Scammacca, and Walker code sheet was used for coding studies that met the inclusion criteria and were published between and Data coded included participant characteristics, description of the methodology and intervention, indicators of study quality, properties of measures, and data for calculating effect sizes.- Researchers with doctorate degrees and doctoral students with experience coding studies for other meta-analyses completed the code sheets. All coders had completed training on how to complete the code sheet and had reached a high level of reliability with others coding the same article independently. Two raters independently coded every study. When discrepancies were found, coders reviewed the article together and discussed the coding until consensus was reached. Code sheets for the period between and had been completed for earlier meta-analyses covering this time period Scammacca et al. Code sheets for to were completed for the present review using the same procedures described above for the to studies. We attempted to use the same code sheet and coding procedures for the studies meeting inclusion criteria for to but discovered that the nature of the research published during this period and the way in which it was reported in the literature did not fit a code sheet designed to capture details from more contemporary studies.
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The vast majority of the fields on the code sheet could not be coded due to lack of detail in the published studies and differences in reporting standards for journal articles over time. For the sake of coding efficiency, we developed a shortened version of the Vaughn et al. Results In presenting the results, we take a decade-by-decade approach due to the historical nature of our systematic review. Our focus is on discussing the predominant themes that emerged in the research published in each decade. Taking this approach allowed us to trace the developments in the field in a way that shows how the research evolved over time based on both previous research and events that occurred in the historical context of each decade. In the periods to and to , the field of reading interventions was in its infancy and few studies were published. Published research grew in volume beginning in the s and the number of publications continues to expand through the present day.- To capture the characteristics and outcomes of the corpus of studies that met our inclusion criteria without bogging down the narrative, we present the bulk of the studies included in our review in tables by decade. These tables are available as a supplement in the online version of this journal. They begin with Table S1 for the s and continue through Table S9 for — see Supplementary Tables S1—S9 in the online version of the journal. Thorndike highlighted the need for accurate, normative assessments of reading to identify individuals who were struggling and presented experimental scales for measuring vocabulary and reading comprehension. In , Kelly developed the first standardized assessment of reading comprehension, the Kansas Silent Reading Tests, and published the measure the following year Kelly, The assessment had forms for measuring the reading ability of children in Grades 3 to 5, 6 to 8, and 9 to Gray a , b also published tests of silent and oral reading with grade-level standards for students in Grades 1 to 8.
- These innovations in assessment allowed teachers to determine via a very brief, objective test whether students were performing as expected for their grade. Uhl used findings from both the Kansas and Gray tests to individualize treatment for poor readers in a summer program for students in Grades 3 to 8. Uhl also is credited with being the first to use the term remedial Smith, , which appeared in the title of his report, to describe a reading intervention.
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The Kansas test was used to screen all students enrolled in summer school; those with the lowest scores were then tested individually with the Gray Oral Reading Test to confirm that they were indeed struggling readers. Tutors worked with students daily for 6 weeks. The treatment involved minute drills focused on the deficits observed in the test results. Tutors directed the student to work on remedying a specific aspect of oral reading, such as reading in meaningful words groups e. The students were tested at the conclusion of summer school, and the growth of those in the reading program was compared to that of students who did not qualify for intervention and received classroom instruction only.- Results indicated that the students who received intervention had similar pre—post gains as their peers who did not require intervention. An important development of this time period was the entry of the United States into World War I in The U. With the advent of standardized assessments and the initial publications of reading research, the s laid the foundation for the s to be a decade of progress in interventions for older struggling readers.
- It began with having students master one word at a time through first tracing the letters in the word written in cursive on a chalkboard with their fingers and then writing the word themselves from memory while pronouncing its syllables. Students progressed to learning to recognize the same word in print and then repeated the process with words combined into sentences and paragraphs and finally to independent silent reading.
- Fernald and Keller presented three case studies in which non-readers achieved grade-level fluency and comprehension after four to six months of treatment. He called for universal screening of fluency and comprehension at the start of each school year to determine which students needed reading interventions. For those found to be struggling readers, he recommended small group instruction focused on remedying deficits detected through diagnostic assessments. Students who did not make adequate progress in small group instruction were referred to a reading specialist for individualized instruction. Gray described his procedure for the diagnosis and treatment of children with reading disabilities and research findings in his monograph, Remedial Cases in Reading: Their Diagnosis and Treatment.
- In this work, he reported on the specific problems often seen in struggling readers, such as poor auditory memory, inadequate spoken vocabulary, lack of interest in reading, and insufficient knowledge of phonics. The information gathered guided the development of an individualized treatment plan. Gray noted that his approach was so individualized that it was not possible to describe the treatment in any general way; he referred readers to the case studies that comprise the bulk of his monograph to learn what was done to help each child. He did state that treatment included exercises to improve word and phrase recognition, story recall, and reading comprehension. Five years later, Gates published the first of what would become three editions of his book The Improvement of Reading: A Program of Diagnostic and Remedial Methods.
- The intended audience was teachers and remedial reading specialists. Gates recommended strategies for remedying reading deficits in word recognition, vocabulary acquisition, left-to-right eye tracking, and reading comprehension. In addition to providing guidance for diagnosing and intervening with struggling readers, Gates described the standardized oral and silent reading tests he had developed and published in The following year, Gates published diagnostic tests to help pinpoint the areas in which a student was struggling in order that the proper intervention could be applied. Gates and Gray represent the approach that educators and educational psychologists took to helping struggling readers in the s. Physicians also studied reading disabilities during this era, but from a different angle. Harris, One such physician of the s was Samuel Orton. Orton presented the case of a year-old boy who was able to read very few words and had been diagnosed with congenital word blindness.
- Orton noted that the boy often read words from right to left, scrambled syllables within words, and produced many reversals when asked to copy words. After assessing this boy and a number of other children with extreme reading difficulty, Orton noted that all could write about equally well with either hand and read text in a mirror with about the same number of errors as standard text. Other common traits noted among this group of children included a higher-than-average incidence of stuttering, being left-handed, and having motor coordination and balance issues.
- Additionally, 14 of the 15 students referred to Orton with severe reading difficulties were boys. This constellation of factors, coupled with the knowledge available at the time on the function of various regions of the brain and the effects of destruction of a region in one or the other hemisphere of the brain, led Orton to an interesting conclusion about the source of severe reading difficulty in the cases he examined. Orton theorized that as youngsters begin learning the alphabet, the brain stores the letters in the correct orientation in the language-dominant hemisphere and stores the mirror image of the letters in the nondominant hemisphere. In the process of learning to read, the typical child learns to ignore the mirror images and focuses on the proper orientation of letters and words, and eventually, the memory trace to the mirror images disappears. However, in children with severe reading difficulty, neither hemisphere is dominant for language, and memory traces to both hemispheres remain active.
- As a result, the child who is reading disabled accesses letters and words both in correct and mirror image orientation at random. At a time when the dominant view in the medical community was that a diagnosis of congenital word blindness implied permanent brain damage that could not be remedied, Orton convinced many researchers and physicians that there was hope for improvement among students with reading disabilities Traxler, Strephosymbolia was seen as a functional impairment that would respond to treatment.
- One hemisphere of the brain could be trained to control reading using the correctly oriented letters. Orton recommended treating children with strephosymbolia using extensive drill and practice in phonics to build up the memory traces to the correct representations of words and letters and starve off the traces to the mirror images. He based this recommendation on case reports where this method was used successfully but emphasized that further research was needed.
- He would later revise his treatment recommendations to promote a kinesthetic approach. During the s, as more school districts implemented standardized tests of reading, superintendents became increasing aware that many of their students had reading deficits that needed attention Smith, This chapter summarized intervention strategies that had shown promise in case studies and other published and unpublished reports. The chart suggested an underlying reason for the difficulty and provided recommended teaching strategies to help the student overcome the problem.
- This report represented an attempt to synthesize early research on reading interventions for struggling readers. One significant factor leading to this change was the 24th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education Gray, , which, along with its chapter on remedial reading, emphasized the importance of continuing to teach reading in junior high and high school. Additionally, published case studies of successful remediation of reading problems in school settings gave teachers confidence that they could help the struggling readers in their classrooms Traxler, Summaries of research on reading interventions that were published during the s focused on giving teachers ideas and tools to help their students.
- Reviews by Tinker and Traxler emphasized putting the latest research findings into the hands of classroom teachers A. Although studies of interventions for struggling readers during the s used several different approaches, one similarity among them was that they were universally successful in raising reading GE scores. As noted by Traxler in his review of s research, whether the intervention occurred in a group or individually or with students with severe or moderate reading difficulties, results showed a great deal of improvement over the course of treatment. Tinker , also noted that success was achieved across studies with varying treatment methodologies. In studies located for this review, the same universal success was noted despite marked differences in the approach taken in the intervention.
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In the Washington, D. Her approach involved teachers instructing children in small groups while attending to the individual reading needs of each student as identified through various reading tests and the use of reading material that students would find interesting and be motivated to read. Tinker explained the success of these different intervention approaches by pointing to a common end result. All approaches helped struggling readers to recognize words as whole units and to read words and lines of text from left to right. Tinker believed that motivation to cooperate with the intervention was the key element in the success of differing approaches to reading interventions. An examination of case records of children with both reading and behavior problems Damerau, showed that some students who had made marked gains in reading skills showed improvement in behavior also, whereas others did not. Those showing improvement in both areas typically received treatment for both problems, leading to the conclusion that treating reading problems in isolation was unlikely to resolve behavior issues.- Interventions for struggling readers that targeted emotional and behavioral disturbances would be a major focus of research in the decade to come. In a widely cited report, Gates reported that three in four students with reading disabilities also had an emotional or behavioral disturbance. Many mental health clinicians believed Gates underestimated the causal role of psychological disorders in reading disabilities A. Hildreth asserted that the nature of reading disabilities meant that psychologists could provide the most comprehensive assessment and treatment planning for struggling readers because they had an understanding of the mind. After a careful diagnosis, the psychologist could prescribe a reading intervention for a teacher to implement and other needed interventions for the mental health, physiological, and other needs of the student.
- Other psychologists and psychiatrists of the s brought the perspective of psychoanalytic theory to the treatment of reading problems. A number of psychoanalytic theories were proposed to explain the existence of reading disabilities and to prescribe treatment. The effort that struggling readers expend to repress sadistic fantasies and aggressive urges toward their parents and teachers leaves them with too little energy to learn to read Blanchard, Girls are less likely than boys to have reading problems because they find it easier to identify with and attach to their usually female reading teachers Bell,
- Where would American culture be without TV? Television has impacted society in profound ways. Modern streaming options may be taking over living rooms today, but TV has played a significant role in culture since its creation. Learn about its history and answer multiple-choice and long response questions in this reading test. Suggested reading level for this text: Grade Refer to the text to check your answers when appropriate. Televisions show sounds and pictures. They get data from cables, discs, or over-the-air signals. They turn this data into sounds and images. People watch news and shows on them.
- Some of the worksheets for this concept are Nonfiction reading test tv, Nonfiction reading test black friday, Reading a classic novel, Comprehension for grade 6 with answers pdf Check flipbooks from. Learn the answer to that question and a whole bunch more while reading this awesome nonfiction passage. Then students answers questions covering many CCSS reading skills. Learn about the history of television and then answer multiple-choice and long response questions.
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Jf "'. Refer to the text to check your answers when appropriate. From mountains to plateaus to low-lying coastal regions, the environments of Turkey have offered challenges and opportunities to their inhabitants throughout history. In turn, people have learned how to make the most of what the land has to offer. People have learned to use the land within each section of the country for what it con-best provide, which is different for each area.Reading Comprehension Exercises | Reading Comprehension | Multiple Choice
The Marmara region is noted for its rolling hills, which are built up with houses, as well as the many apartment businesses throughout the metropolis of Istanbul. Ruins of fortresses built into the sides of these cliffs are reminders of how people once used the natural defensive quality of the land to their advantage. With high, steep vantage points, the cliffs helped the troops stay safer, while fighting with greater aggression. Day to day, people use the strait for transportation and commerce. Businessmen commute via ferries. Where there is water, ithas been easier, historically, to support many types of agriculture. Additionally, seas and rivers offer easy trade and transportation routes. Southeastern Anatolia, a geographical region in you guessed it! Despite the little rain in the area, grains like wheat and barley are able to grow there. However, the nearby Tigris and Euphrates rivers have become the water sources of new irrigation programs, which help farmers in the region grow a greater variety of plants.Here’s Why Everyone’s Jumping On The Trampoline Fitness Craze—plus 5 Affordable Trampolines To Try
Turkish people have certainly been able to adapt and use the country's sources of water, building cities along shorelines or developing strong agricultural production over time in areas with good rainfall. However, Turkish people have also been able to adapt to inland portions of the country that may not have as much access to water. North of the Mediterranean coast, mountain ranges butt up against Central Anatolia's characteristic plateau lands. Although these lands receive little rain, grains like 1"; corn, wheat, and barley can be grown there, as well as cotton. Eastern Anatolia's signature peaks aren't suited for farming the same fruits as the more temperate regions of the country, in part because of the ter. Turkey's varying climates and terrains have challenged settlers and travelers from the time of the Silk Road trade route many centuries ago to the modern day.
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